American mink became established in Britain following escapes from fur farms and are now common and widespread with the exception of North West Scotland and North West Wales. Harris et al (1995) suggest 87,500 as the British population, with 46,000 in England, 31,250 in Scotland and 9,750 in Wales. These figures exclude coastal habitats and Scottish islands.

Mink are thought to have detrimental effects on a range of native species. Mink predation can lead to the abandonment of seabird colonies (Craik 1997) and nest loss for many riverine birds (Ferreras and MacDonald 1999). It has also been argued that mink are a major cause of the decline of the water vole (MacDonald et al 1999).

Trapping is the usual method of mink control. A range of lethal and live capture traps are available and their efficiency is thought to be high. Mink are considered an easy species to trap. Scenting dogs may sometimes be used as a supplementary method of locating areas of mink activity. Mink are occasionally hunted by packs of dogs in a similar manner to the old otter packs, but we unaware of any reliable information on the number, extent or efficacy of these packs. Although it is possible that such packs may achieve a temporary reduction in local numbers, given the high effectiveness of trapping it is thought that banning the hunting of mink with dogs would have a negligible effect on the control of this species.

Craik, C. (1997). Long-term effects of North American Mink Mustela vison on seabirds in western Scotland. Bird Study 44:303-309

Ferreras, P. and MacDonald, D.W. (1999). The impact of American Mink (Mustela vison) on water birds in the upper Thames. Journal of Applied Ecology 36:701-708.

Harris, S., Morris, P., Wray, S. and Yalden, D. (1995) A Review of British Mammals: population estimates and conservation status of British mammals other than cetaceans. JNCC, Peterborough.

MacDonald, D.W., Barreto, G.R., Ferreras, P., Kirk, B., Rushton, S., Yamaguchi, N, and Strachan, R. (1999) The impact of American Mink, Mustela vison, as predators of native species in British freshwater systems. In: Advances in Vertebrate Pest Management. (Eds. D.P. Cowan and C.J. Feare) Filander-Verlag, Furth. pp5-24.

Mountain hare populations are localised but can reach high densities. Harris et al (1995) suggest a British pre-breeding population of 350,000 animals concentrated in Scotland but with around 500 animals in England. They no longer occur in Wales. With periodic fluctuations, the numbers reported from annual surveys of hunter records suggest a relatively stable population over the last 40 years (Tapper 1992, Tapper et al. 1992). However, as there are no records of annual hunting effort these figures may not reflect the actual population changes.

Mountain hares are grazing animals damaging semi-natural upland vegetation and young forestry plantations, and competing with domestic livestock. Their numbers vary considerably on a local basis and any damage is localised. Mountain hares are thought to play a role in the transmission of Louping Ill. This disease is transmitted between a range of wildlife hosts by feeding ticks and can significantly impact grouse numbers and sheep health, with economic consequences for upland communities (Hudson et al submitted). Mountain hares are a quarry species and in some areas the sale of shooting rights and carcasses provides an important source of income to local communities.

The major control measures for this species are snaring and shooting, with shooting also providing the basis of harvesting as a quarry species. Dogs are regularly used when driving mountain hares for sport in the same way as for driven gamebird shooting. Mountain hares are occasionally coursed with dogs but this is not thought to provide any effective control. Banning the hunting of mountain hares with dogs would have a negligible effect on the control of this species.

Harris, S., Morris, P., Wray, S. and Yalden, D. (1995) A Review of British Mammals: population estimates and conservation status of British mammals other than cetaceans. JNCC, Peterborough.

Hudson, P.J., Laurenson, K, Norman, R., Gilbert, L., Reid, H., Jones, L. and Gould, E. (submitted) Apparent competition and non-viraemic transmission of a vector borne pathogen. Nature.

Tapper, S.C. (1992). Game Heritage; An ecological review of shooting and gamekeeping records. The Game Conservancy Trust, Fordingbridge

Tapper, S.C. and Stoate, C. (1992) Surveys galore - but how many hares? Game Conservancy Annual Review of 1991. 22:87-91.

Brown hares are widespread and most common in agricultural areas. In Scotland they are absent from the north west and western Highlands where they are replaced by the Mountain Hare on heather moorland. Harris et al (1995) give a British mid-winter population estimate, at the start of breeding but before the main hunting period, of over 817,000 hares. This estimate includes 572,000 in England, 187,000 in Scotland and 58,000 in Wales. Based on hunter records, hare numbers increased after WW2 until 1960, and thereafter declined during the next two decades (Tapper 1992, Tapper et al 1992). Since this period there appear to have been further declines in some regions, particularly in the west. However, as there are no records of annual hunting effort, bag counts may not reflect the actual population changes.

Brown hares are typically a farmland species and high densities can be associated with grazing damage to crops and damage to young, unprotected forestry plantations. Hares are considered as agricultural pests and the Ground Game Act 1880 allows farmers to take them at any time of year to protect crops. In some areas the sale of shooting rights and carcasses provides an important source of income to local communities.

The major control measure for brown hare is shooting, which also provides the basis of harvesting as a quarry species. On organised hare shoots, 40% of the population may be harvested each winter (Tapper and Stoate 1992). Dogs are regularly used when driving brown hares for sport in the same way as for driven gamebird shooting. Hares may also be snared and this can be an effective form of control, although it does not seem to be widely used for this purpose. Brown hares are coursed with dogs at organised meetings and are pursued by hunters with beagles. Hare coursing and beagling is a sporting rather than a pest control activity and does not significantly reduce numbers in the locality. Removal of the right to hunt brown hare with dogs would have, therefore, a negligible effect on the control of this species.

Harris, S., Morris, P., Wray, S. and Yalden, D. (1995) A Review of British Mammals: population estimates and conservation status of British mammals other than cetaceans. JNCC, Peterborough.

Tapper, S.C. (1992). Game Heritage; An ecological review of shooting and gamekeeping records. The Game Conservancy Trust, Fordingbridge

Tapper, S.C. and Stoate, C. (1992) Surveys galore - but how many hares? Game Conservancy Annual Review of 1991. 22:87-91.

There are currently six species of deer occurring in the wild in the UK, only two of which (red and roe) are native. All species, apart from the Chinese water deer, are increasing in number (Harris et al. 1995). This increase has been accompanied, except in fallow deer (Putman and Moore 1998), by an expansion of range.

Though deer are often associated with woodland, the different species occur in a wide range of habitats (Staines et al. 1998). Most damage occurs to forestry interests (especially young plantation trees and regeneration): agricultural damage is a limited and local problem although where it occurs, it may be significant. Chinese water deer occur in such small numbers that they cause negligible damage of any sort (Trout et al. 1994). Even at high densities, muntjac and sika cause little agricultural loss. Sika damage forestry interests, especially conifer plantations in Scotland (Ratcliffe 1987) and there are serious concerns about muntjac damaging coppice and ground flora. Roe deer can cause substantial tree damage but are not seen as a serious agricultural pest. Fallow deer damage newly planted trees (Moore et al. 1999), and ground flora in more established areas (Putman and Moore 1998): any crop damage is small and localised. At high densities of red deer, severe damage to commercial plantations can occur (Ratcliffe 1989). Damage to agriculture may also be locally significant.

The main methods used to mitigate deer damage are: repellents, scarers, fencing, tree guards and controlling numbers by shooting. Small deer such as muntjac and roe can also be trapped but this technique is not currently used for controlling numbers, merely for translocations and catching animals for scientific research. Hunting with hounds is not legal in Scotland. In England, hunting with hounds now only takes place with three packs in Devon and Somerset. As the total number of animals culled per year is between 150 and 200, this activity has no influence on national deer populations and even at a local level does not control numbers (Langbein and Putman 1996). Removal of the right to hunt deer with dogs would, therefore, have a negligible effect on the ability to control deer damage.

Harris, S., Morris, P., Wray, S. and Yalden, D. (1995) A Review of British Mammals: population estimates and conservation status of British mammals other than cetaceans. JNCC, Peterborough.

Langbein J. and Putman R.J. (1996). Studies of English red deer populations subject to hunting-to-hounds. In: The Exploitation of Mammal Populations (eds. Taylor and N. Dunstone). Chapman and Hall, London.

Moore N.P., Hart J.D. & Langton S.D. (1999). Factors influencing browsing by fallow deer (Dama dama) in young broad-leaved plantations. Biological Conservation 87: 255-260.

Putman, R.J. and Moore, N.P. (1998). Impact of deer in lowland Britain on Agriculture, Forestry and Conservation Habitats. Mammal Review 28: 141-164.

Ratcliffe P.R. (1989). The control of red and sika deer populations in commercial forests. In: Mammals as Pests pp. 98-115 (ed. R.J. Putman). Chapman and Hall, London.

Staines B., Palmer S.C.F., Wyllie I., Gill R. and Mayle B. (1998). Desk and limited field studies to analyse the major factors influencing regional deer populations and ranging behaviour. A report for MAFF.

Trout R.C., Putman R.J., Moore N.P. and Hart J.D. (1994). A review of lowland deer. A report for MAFF.

The total adult breeding fox population was estimated at 240,000 in 1995 (Harris et al. 1995); of these 33,000 are considered to be urban, where there appears to have been a small but steady increase over time. Estimates of fox productivity vary from 1.0 to 1.8 cubs per adult (Lloyd et al. 1976, Anderson et al. 1981, Harris et al. 1995) giving a range of 240,000 to 432,000 cubs born each spring. Gamekeeping records suggest a steady increase in numbers since 1960 (Tapper 1992) but, since the actual hunting effort per year is not known, this may not reflect a true population growth.

The importance of fox predation on lambs is fiercely debated (e.g. McDonald et al. 1997) because it is very difficult to determine whether a lamb was killed by a fox or whether the fox was merely acting as a scavenger on an already dead animal. On the basis of current evidence, the Ministry does not consider foxes to be a significant factor in lamb mortality nationally. However, foxes can cause serious local problems to farmers and landowners; as a result they may take measures to control local fox populations, as well as responding to individual incidences of fox predation. Foxes may also cause localised problems to free range poultry interests, have a detrimental impact on grey partridge numbers (Tapper et al. 1990) and predate colonies of ground nesting birds (e.g. Forster 1974).

The three main methods of fox control are shooting, snaring and hunting with dogs. In addition, non-lethal methods of management, such as electric fencing (e.g. Forster 1974, Patterson 1977) in rural areas and cage traps in urban areas (Lloyd 1968), are used on a local level.

Shooting is the recommended method of control in rural areas accounting for around 80,000 deaths per year. Assuming that about 400,000 cubs are produced each year, this means that around 20% of the surplus population is shot. With skilled personnel, shooting is considered to be an efficient means of control. Snaring is also an effective technique when used by experienced personnel and is thought to account for around 36,000 foxes per year, i.e. 9% of the surplus population. Baker & Harris (1997) have argued that each year around 50,000 foxes are dug out using terriers, 10,000 are killed with lurchers and 15,000 by foxhunts. Thus approximately 75,000 foxes are killed each year by all forms of hunting that involve the use of dogs; i.e. about 20% of the surplus population. These figures compare with the estimated 100,000 foxes that are killed each year on our roads. We are unaware of reliable data on the cost/effectiveness of the different methods of fox control. If there was any reduction in fox control using dogs, this would have to be compensated by an increase in other methods of control to ensure no increase in local fox numbers.

Anderson, R.M., Jackson, H.C., May, R.M. and Smith, A.D.M. (1981). Population dynamics of fox rabies in Europe. Nature 289: 765-771.

Baker, P. and Harris, S. (1997). How will a ban on hunting affect the British fox population? Electra Publishing, Cheddar.

Forster, J.A. (1974). Electric fencing to protect sandwich terns against foxes. Biological Conservation 7: 85.

Harris, S., Morris, P., Wray, S. and Yalden, D. (1995) A Review of British Mammals: population estimates and conservation status of British mammals other than cetaceans. JNCC, Peterborough.

Lloyd, H.G. (1968). The control of foxes. Annals of Applied Biology 61: 334-345.

Lloyd, H.G., Jensen, B., Haaften, J.L., Niewold, F.J.J., Wandeler, A., Bogel, K. and Arata, A.A. (1976). Annual turnover of fox populations in Europe. Zentralblatt fur Veterinaermedizin B 23: 580-589.

McDonald, R., Baker, P. and Harris, S. (1977). Is the fox a pest? Electra Publishing, Cheddar.

Patterson, I.J. (1977). The control of fox movements by electric fencing. Biological Conservation 11: 267-278.

Tapper, S.C. (1992). Game Heritage; An ecological review of shooting and gamekeeping records. The Game Conservancy Trust, Fordingbridge

Tapper, S.C., Brockless, M. and Potts, R. (1990). The Salisbury Plain experiment: the conclusion. Game Conservancy Annual Review 22: 87-91.